What You Need to Know about Biotechnology Colleges

We are all used to the idea that we live in the information age, that the advance in digital technologies is what makes this epoch what it is, what differentiates it from all other periods of human history. Yet it is not completely true. Although digital technologies play crucial role in modern world, they are but a part of multi-faceted scientific revolution amidst which we live. And another, probably equally important yet much less visible part of it is biotechnology. It is more than likely that in not so distant future breakthroughs in this field will change the world and the quality of human existence beyond recognition. Scientists already make tentative attempts at artificially growing individual organs and tissues, move closer and closer to determining the true meaning of DNA and understanding the mechanism of life itself. Biotechnology is at the core of these and most of the future changes in this field – and by entering a biotechnology college you may become one of the people who are going to shape the new age of human history. Host of Possibilities However, by entering a biotechnology course you do not limit your future vocation to research activities; other occupation possibilities include patent lawyer, pharmaceutical salesperson, environmental biotechnologist, research and development assistant, physician, veterinarian, biological technician, health inspector and others. You will be fully eligible for any of these career paths, and your knowledge of biotechnology, i.e., fuller and deeper understanding of how living organisms function, will probably give you an edge over those who didn’t take that course. In fact, the vast number of choices in this field may and probably will overwhelm those willing to pursue careers in this field. But all in all there are six general types of education programs: certificate, associate, bachelor’s, master’s, PhD, and dual degree programs. Certificate programs are mostly aimed at those who are willing to broaden their expertise in biotechnology without specializing in it, usually aiming at finding a job immediately after. However, this credential is only enough for a job of a lab technician or research assistant. They tend to last 2-4 full semesters. Associate programs are similar, but more in-depth and last for 2 years. They are a good choice for preparing oneself for a bachelor’s degree or getting an entry-level laboratory assistant job. Bachelor’s programs became rather rare in recent years due to increasing specialization of this field – usually one is expected to get a bachelor’s degree in a related field, such as biology or biochemistry, and then pursue a master’s degree in biotechnology. Further programs are aimed at deepening one’s knowledge, and by the time you reach them you are unlikely to need any advice as to which career to pursue. Between Specializations Biotechnology programs are interdisciplinary and include coursework in chemistry, physics, biology and engineering consisting of laboratory sessions, lectures and field work. Don’t forget that you should be prepared to entering such a course – absolute majority of them require strong background in mathematics and sciences, and for an advanced degree you will almost certainly be required to have some lab experience. For your Master’s degree you will get an opportunity to choose a specialization – in this respect biotechnology courses are different from the majority of post-baccalaureate programs – which means that by this time you should have a pretty distinct idea of what career you are going to pursue. You may get some idea of the multi-faceted nature of this discipline from this list of possible classes it may include: principles of bioprocessing, computer science, microbiology, organic chemistry, microbial genetics, biochemistry principles, molecular biology, mathematics, statistics. As a result, you get a truly multidimensional education which opens a way to a number of fascinating specializations like bioinformatics, cellular microbiology and others. Vocation of the Future Just like the end of 20th century and the beginning of 21st century will be remembered as the age of informatics, the 21st century proper is likely to make it into history as the age of biotechnology. It plays an ever-growing role in a wide array of activities: crop enhancement, diagnostics and treatment of diseases, development of waste-free technologies and so on. Biotechnology is everywhere: from food products to forensic science and astronautics. And by choosing it as your specialization you will be able to take part in shaping the future.

Timeline 1800-1859 African American History and Women

[Previous] [Next] 1800 1801 1802 †¢ Ohio Constitution adopted, outlawing slavery and prohibiting free blacks from voting †¢ James Callendar accused Thomas Jefferson of keeping as his concubine, one of his own slaves -- Sally Hemings. The accusation was first published in the Richmond Recorder. †¢ (February 11) Lydia Maria Child born (abolitionist, writer) 1803 †¢ (September 3) Prudence Crandall born (educator) 1804 †¢ (January 5) Ohio passed black laws restricting rights of free blacks 1805 †¢ Angelina Emily Grimke Weld born (abolitionist, womens rights proponent, sister of Sarah Moore Grimke) 1806 †¢ (July 25) Maria Weston Chapman born (abolitionist) †¢Ã‚  (September 9)  Sarah Mapps Douglass  born (abolitionist, educator) 1807 †¢ New Jersey passes legislation restricts the right to vote to  free, white, male citizens, removing the vote from all African Americans and women, some of whom had voted before the change 1808 †¢ (January 1) importing slaves to the United States became illegal; about 250,000 more Africans were imported as slaves to the United States after slave imports became illegal 1809 †¢ New York began recognizing marriages of African Americans †¢ African Female Benevolent Society of Newport, Rhode Island, founded †¢ Fanny Kemble born (wrote about slavery) 1810 †¢ The Congress bans employment by the U.S. Postal Service of any African Americans 1811 †¢ (June 14) Harriet Beecher Stowe born (writer, author of Uncle Toms Cabin) 1812 †¢ Boston incorporates African American schools into the citys public school system 1813 1814 1815 †¢ (November 12) Elizabeth Cady Stanton born (antislavery and womens rights activist) 1816 1817 1818 †¢ Lucy Stone born (editor, abolitionist, womens rights advocate) 1819 1820 †¢ (about 1820) Harriet Tubman born a slave in Maryland (Underground Railroad conductor, abolitionist, womens rights advocate, soldier, spy, lecturer) †¢ (February 15) Susan B. Anthony born (reformer, abolitionist, womens rights advocate, lecturer) 1821 †¢ New York state abolishes property qualifications for white male voters but keeps such qualifications for African American male voters; women are not included in the franchise †¢ Missouri removes the right to vote from African Americans 1822 †¢ Rhode Island removes the right to vote from African Americans 1823 †¢ (October 9) Mary Ann Shadd Cary born (journalist, teacher, abolitionist, activist) 1824 1825 †¢ Frances Wright purchased land near Memphis and founded Nashoba plantation, buying slaves who would work to buy their freedom, become educated, and then when free move outside the United States †¢ (September 24) Frances Ellen Watkins Harper born in Maryland to free black parents (writer, abolitionist) 1826 †¢ Sarah Parker Remond born (anti-slavery lecturer whose British lectures probably helped keep the British from entering the American Civil War on the side of the Confederacy) 1827 †¢ New York State abolishes slavery 1828 1829 †¢ (1829-1830) when Frances Wrights Nashoba plantation project failed, amid scandal, Wright took the remaining slaves to freedom in Haiti †¢ race riots in Cincinnati resulted in more than half the African Americans in the city being forced out of town †¢ the first permanent order of African American Catholic nuns is founded, the Oblate Sisters of Providence, in Maryland 1830 1831 †¢ (September) men and women of the slave ship Amistad demand that the US recognize their freedom †¢ (-1861) Underground Railroad helped thousands of African American men, women, and children to freedom in the Northern states and Canada †¢ Jarena Lee publishes her autobiography, the first by an African American woman †¢ North Carolina bans the teaching of any slaves to read and write †¢ Alabama bans preaching by any African Americans, free or enslaved 1832 †¢Ã‚  Maria W. Stewart  begins series of four public lectures on religion and justice, advocating for racial equality, racial unity and standing up for rights among African Americans. †¢ Female Anti-Slavery Society was founded in Salem, Massachusetts, by and for African American women †¢ Oberlin College founded in Ohio, admitting women and African Americans as students along with white men 1833 †¢Ã‚  Lydia Maria Child  published  An Appeal in Favor of the Class of Americans Called Africans †¢ American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) founded, with four women attending,  Lucretia Mott  spoke †¢Ã‚  Lucretia Mott  and others founded the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society †¢ Oberlin Collegiate Institute opened, the first coeducational college and the first to accept African American students (later renamed Oberlin College) †¢Ã‚  Sarah Mapps Douglass  founded a school for African American girls in Philadelphia †¢ in Connecticut, Prudence Crandall admitted an African American student to her girls school, reacted to disapproval by dismissing the white students in February and, in April, reopened it as a school for African American Girls †¢ (May 24) Connecticut passed a law forbidding the enrollment of black students from outside the state without the permission of the local legislature, under which Prudence Crandall was jailed for one night †¢ (August 23) Prudence Crandalls trial began (see May 24). The defense used a constitutionality argument that free African Americans had rights in all states. The judgment went against Crandall (July 1834) but the Connecticut Supreme Court reversed the lower courts decision, though not on Constitutional grounds. 1834 †¢ (September 10) Prudence Crandall closed her school for African American girls in the face of harassment †¢ Maria Weston Chapman began her work as an abolitionist -- shes known for her work with the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society †¢ New York absorbs African American schools into the public school system †¢ South Carolina bans teaching any African Americans in the state, free or enslaved 1835 1836 †¢ Angelina Grimkà © published her antislavery letter, Appeal to the Christian Women of the South and her sister  Sarah Moore Grimkà ©Ã‚  published her anti-slavery letter, Epistle to the Clergy of the Southern States †¢Ã‚  Lydia Maria Child  published her  Anti-Slavery Catechism †¢ Maria Weston Chapman published  Songs of the Free, and Hymns of Christian Freedom †¢ (-1840) Maria Weston Chapman edited the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society annual reports, titled  Right and Wrong in Boston †¢ Fannie Jackson Coppin born (educator) 1837 †¢ William Lloyd Garrison and others won the right of women to join the American Anti-Slavery Society, and for the Grimke sisters and other women to speak to mixed (male and female) audiences †¢ Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women held in New York †¢Ã‚  Angelina Grimke  published her Appeal to the Women of the Nominally Free States †¢Ã‚  Charlotte Forten  born (educator, diarist) 1838 †¢ Angelina Grimke spoke to the Massachusetts legislature, the first woman to address an American legislature †¢ Grimke sisters published  American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses †¢Ã‚  Helen Pitts  born (later, the second wife of Frederick Douglass)   †¢ (and 1839) Philadelphia Anti-Slavery Convention of American Women met in Philadelphia 1839 †¢ (-1846) Maria Weston Chapman published  Liberty Bell †¢ (-1842) Maria Weston Chapman helped edit  The Liberator  and  Non-Resistant, abolitionist publications †¢ women permitted to vote for the first time at an annual convention of the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) 1840 †¢Ã‚  Lucretia Mott,  Lydia Maria Child, and Maria Weston Chapman were the executive committee of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society †¢ World Anti-Slavery Convention in London would not seat women or allow them to speak;  Lucretia Mott  and  Elizabeth Cady Stanton  met over this issue and their reaction led directly to organizing, in 1848, the first womans rights convention in Seneca Falls, New York †¢ Abby Kelleys new leadership role in the American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS) led some members to secede over womens participation †¢ (-1844)  Lydia Maria Child  and David Child edited  Anti-Slavery Standard 1841 1842 †¢ Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin born (journalist, activist, lecturer) †¢ Maria Weston Chapman organized the Anti-Slavery Fair in Boston 1843 †¢Ã‚  Sojourner Truth  began her abolitionist work, changing her name from Isabella Van Wagener †¢ or 1845 (July 4 or 14)  Edmonia Lewis  born 1844 †¢ Maria Chapman became an editor on  National Anti-Slavery Standard †¢ Edmonia Highgate born (fundraiser, after the Civil War, for the Freedmans Association and the American Missionary Society, for educating freed slaves) 1845 †¢ or 1843 (July 4 or 14)  Edmonia Lewis  born 1846 †¢ Rebecca Cole born (second African American woman to graduate from medical school, worked with  Elizabeth Blackwell  in New York) 1847 1848 †¢ (July 19-20) Womans Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York, included among its attendees Frederick Douglass and other male and female antislavery activists; 68 women and 32 men signed the  Declaration of Sentiments †¢ (July)  Harriet Tubman  escaped from slavery, returning repeatedly to free more than 300 slaves 1849 1850 †¢ (around 1850) Johanna July born (cowgirl) †¢ Fugitive Slave Act passed by Congress †¢ (January 13)  Charlotte Ray  born (first African American woman lawyer in the United States and the first woman admitted to the bar in the District of Columbia) †¢Ã‚  Hallie Quinn Brown  born (educator, lecturer, clubwoman, reformer, Harlem Renaissance figure) †¢Ã‚  Mary Ann Shadd  and her family, free blacks, moved to Canada to avoid capture and enslavement under new US policies and laws †¢ Lucy Stanton graduated from Oberlin Collegiate Institute (now Oberlin College), the fist African American woman to graduate from college †¢ (1850-1852)  Uncle Toms Cabin  by  Harriet Beecher Stowe  ran as a serial in  National Era 1851 †¢Ã‚  Sojourner Truth  gave her Aint I A Woman speech to a womens rights convention in Akron, Ohio, in reaction to male hecklers †¢Ã‚  Harriet Tubman  made her first trip back to the South to help members of her family to freedom; she made a total of 19 trips back to help slaves escape 1852 †¢ (March 20)  Uncle Toms Cabin  by  Harriet Beecher Stowe  published, in book form, in Boston, selling more than 300,000 copies the first year -- the books success in highlighting the evils of slavery prompted Abraham Lincoln later to say of Stowe, So this is the little lady who made this great war. †¢ Frances Wright died (writer about slavery) 1853 †¢ Mary Ann Shadd Cary began publishing a weekly,  The Provincial Freeman,  from her exile in Canada †¢ Sarah Parker Remond tried to integrate a Boston theater and was hurt when a policeman pushed her. She sued the officer and won a $500 judgment. †¢ Elizabeth Taylor Greenfield appeared at the Metropolitan Opera, New York, and later that year performed before Queen Victoria 1854 †¢Ã‚  Francis Ellen Watkins Harper  published  Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects  which included an anti-slavery poem, Bury Me in a Free Land †¢ Katy Ferguson died (educator; ran school in New York City for poor children) †¢Ã‚  Sarah Emlen Cresson and John Miller Dickey, a married couple, found Ashmun Institute, to educate African American men; this later becomes Lincoln University 1855 †¢ Maria Weston Chapman published  How Can I Help to Abolish Slavery 1856 †¢ Sarah Parker Remond hired as a lecturer for the American Anti-Slavery Society 1857 †¢ Dred Scott decision of the Supreme Court declared that African Americans were not US citizens 1859 †¢Ã‚  Our Nig; Or Sketches from the Life of a Free Black  by Harriet Wilson published, the first novel by an African American †¢ (June) Sarah Parker Remond began lecturing in England, Scotland, and Ireland for the American Anti-Slavery Society. Her lectures on slavery probably helped keep the British from actively entering the American Civil War on the side of the Confederacy. †¢ (October 26)  Lydia Maria Child  wrote to Governor Wise of Virginia, regretting the action of John Brown but asking for admission to nurse the prisoner. Published in the newspaper, this led to a correspondence that was also published. †¢ (December 17)  Lydia Maria Childs response to a Mrs. Mason, who had defended the Souths caring attitude towards slaves, included the famous line, I have never known an instance where the pangs of maternity did not meet with requisite assistance; and here at the North, after we have helped the mothers, we do not sell the babies. [Previous] [Next] [1492-1699] [1700-1799] [1800-1859] [1860-1869] [1870-1899] [1900-1919] [1920-1929] [1930-1939] [1940-1949] [1950-1959] [1960-1969] [1970-1979] [1980-1989] [1990-1999] [2000-]

Facing the Effects of the Civil War Free Essays

After the Civil War, it became evident that changes in the South had to be made. The old way had certainly not worked, and it was time for variation. Therefore, there was much political, economic, and social reforms introduced in the South between 1864 and 1877. We will write a custom essay sample on Facing the Effects of the Civil War or any similar topic only for you Order Now After 1877, many of the changes stayed with the exception of Civil Rights. In 1865, the Freedmen†s Bureau was introduced in Congess. It was formed because the government realized that it could not longer meet the needs of Southerners. It was created to look after freed slaves as well as refugees and abandoned land. Groups of people soon received new rights. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act. It gave black Americans full citizenship and guaranteed them equal treatment. Also, it passed the Fourteenth Amendment to make sure that the Supreme Court couldn†t declare the Civil Rights Act unconstitutional. The amendment made blacks citizens of the United States and the states in which they lived. Also, states were forbidden to deprive blacks of life, liberty, or property without due process. Additionally, blacks could not be discriminated by the law. If a state would deprive blacks of their rights as citizens, it†s number of congressional representatives would be reduced. The Civil Rights Act as well as the Fourteenth Amendment affected both the North and the South. Additionally, the Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed blacks the right to vote, but the South found ways to get around this amendment. Reconstruction government made many changes. It strengthened public education and made it available to black children. It strengthened public education and made it available to black children. It also helped the position of women by expanding legal rights for women. Also, they eradicated incarceration for debt. Lastly, They legalized laws which made unjustified forclosures of homes and farms illegal. Many plantations, at one time he trademark of the South, were broken up. Tenant farming and sharecropping became prevalent. Alabama and Virginia instituted agricultural colleges. Also, although cotton was still vastly important, refined farming methods led to the heightened production of tobacco, rice, sugar, corn, and other conventional crops. Much money from farming went to the production of industry. The South built factories, mines, steel mills, and railroads, to name a few. Mills were created by groups of people in abundance. After the Compromise of 1877, most of these plans remained the same, with the exception of the position of blacks. After this date, the states severely limited the rights of blacks to vote as well as their position in society. In conclusion, there were many political, economic, and social reforms that were introduced in the South between 1865 and 1877. Most of them survived the Compromise of 1877. These reforms continue to remain until today. How to cite Facing the Effects of the Civil War, Papers

Gender Identity free essay sample

What is gender identity Gender identity is a person’s concept of him or herself whether male or female, this can be either the same as their biological gender or it could be different (Schwartz, 2008). Most of the people out there are satisfied at being the gender they were born, though some may feel that they should be the opposite sex. Nature The debate between nature versus nurture concerning gender differences has gone on for many years. It is believed that women who believe in a social gender theory would tend to be more likely to not accept gender stereotypical characteristics including negative feminine traits than women who believed in a biological gender theory (Coleman, Hong, Jan-Mar 2008). â€Å"Biological, and certain physical conditions (chromosomes, external and internal genitalia, hormonal states and secondary sex characteristics), lead to the determination of male or female sex. † (Ohle, 2006. Para. 3). There are researchers that believe having an excess of one hormone is the cause of homosexuality though there have been no data to prove this as true or false (Schwartz, 2008). A person’s gender role is often created in a society by factors such as observed behaviors and appearances. Different environmental factors can cause sexual differentiation or gender identity disorders (Ghosh, 2009). Nurture A person’s gender as opposed to their sex is mainly a social construction and their own thoughts and feelings about their gender have a large impact on the development of their own identity. Women are the bearers of our children and as such it is tradition which gives them the title of mother. This title has an influence on the type of work women do, including their role in society (Ohle, 2006). This leads to the belief that sex is associated with biology and a man or women’s gender identity in any society is determined socially and psychologically which includes historically and culturally (Ohle, 2006). In the determination of gender identity, social and cultural perceptions of what is considered masculine and feminine traits along with roles have to be considered. It is believed that gender is a learned process through socialization and by the culture of the society involved (Ohle, 2006). Most cultures encourage boys to participate in acts associated with conceived male traits such as playing with guns and physical games such as football and baseball, while girls are encouraged to play with dolls and have tea parties while playing dress-up. This encouragement carries over into the type of discipline handed out to each gender and what types of careers they can aspire to. Most of this influence can be found in how men and women are portrayed in the media (Ohle, 2006). It is known, however, that during the gestation period, the brain of a fetus starts to produce testosterone on developing nerve cells which then become either male or female in the absence of hormones (Swaab Garcia-Falgueras, 2009). The fetus will become a male if testosterone is produced and female if it is not. Every fetus begins life as a female because of the X chromosome coming from the mother; this is the only chromosome active for the first few weeks of gestation. At the eighth week the fetus takes a chromosome from the father who can be either an X or a Y (Wickens, 2005). If the fetus takes an X chromosome it will stay a female, but if it takes a Y chromosome it begins making testosterone and other male hormones and will begin to develop as a male. These different hormones work in the brain to create the male sex organs and genitalia (Wickens, 2005). In some situations during gestation a fetus’s brain produces male hormones but the fetus still becomes a female. Other times the fetus does not produce enough testosterone for the fetus to become completely male. This is known as hermaphroditism (Ghosh, 2009). Society today calls this intersex. The greater influence Gender identity can take place as early as during gestation; an ultrasound can allow the gender of a fetus to be determined. This usually takes place during the second semester of gestation. Parents tend to use this information as a means of tailoring their parental planning, including gender-specific names, types of clothing and gender based toys (Ghosh, 2009). A parent’s aspirations pertaining to the infant can change due to the anticipated gender. They develop preformed ideas of the infant’s wants and needs prior to its birth (Ghosh, 2009). Examples of this are; if the ultrasound shows a girl, the parents may want her to become a nurse, but if it were a boy they may plan on him being a baseball player. After the child is born and doctors assign it a specific gender, the parents begin to raise the infant as either a boy or girl based on the gender of the child. This is known as the core gender identity (Dreger, 2009). Research has discovered that core gender identity takes place by age two or three, in some cases the child may be as old as five before the core gender identity is complete. It is believed that the parents create the infant’s gender role. The decisions parents make are the largest contributing factor in determining environmental influences (Dreger, 2009). The same research has proven that behavioral changes happen when parents of either sex interact with different genders (Dreger, 2009). Some examples of this are that girls are cuddled more often, and boys are encouraged to play more assertively. Sooner or later the concept of his or her gender develops (Ghosh, 2009). Parents can often become overly worried about certain behaviors, but this tends to only confuse the child even more.

Human Rights and International Law an Example of the Topic Government and Law Essays by

Human Rights and International Law Need essay sample on "Human Rights and International Law" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed The special concern of the international law of human rights is action and inaction by states. The behavior of states has traditionally been the sole concern of international law...; the behavior of others has traditionally been the concern of domestic law... `International law doctrine now goes beyond state duty not to interfere with international human rights, to hold states accountable for not acting positively to ensure rights. Moreover,... international law now obligates states to use due diligence to prevent, investigate and punish systematic and egregious human rights violations between private actors Undergraduates Often Tell EssayLab professionals: I'm not in the mood to write my essay. Because I want to spend time with my boyfriend Professional writers advise: Calculate The Price and get your college papars for sale online In order to pursue such interests, there exist specific legal mechanisms for protecting human rights as well as monitoring abuses. Further, increasingly these mechanisms are expanding to include avenues for prosecution and punishment of human rights abuses. However, although significant gains have been made in this area, there still exist cases in which international human rights law and domestic law clash. When this happens, serious difficulties arise in the fight to uphold human rights. In a perfect world, however, the fight for human rights is expanding. Based upon a combination of international humanitarian law (specifically applicable in times of armed conflict), and international human rights law, both are a body of international rules, agreed upon by treaty or custom. International Humanitarian law protects persons and property that are, or may be, affected by an armed conflict and limits the rights of the parties to a conflict to use methods and means of warfare of their choice (ICRC 2003). The legal treaties in which these rules are established are within the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the Additional Protocol I (1977) and Additional Protocol II (1977). The complement to this, International Human Rights Law is the set of international rules (again derived from treaty or custom) which govern the rights inpiduals and groups can expect from governments in general (2003). According to the principle, these rights are inherent entitlements which belong to every person as a consequence of being human (2003), and is codified by the treaties International Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (1966), Conventions on Genocide (1948), Racial Discrimination (1965), Discrimination Against Women (1979), Torture (1984) and Rights of the Child (1989) (ICRC 2003). In addition, a large number of soft laws which are not based on treaty are included under this category. It is important to note that the existence of these two branches of human rights laws are established to cover the greatest amount of possible circumstances while still remaining wieldy and effective. For example, International Humanitarian laws and provisions are considered rigid, and no departures from their principles are permitted, regardless of circumstance. However, International Human Rights laws do allow governments (in some instances) to depart from or derogate from specified rights in situations of public emergency threatening the life of the nation (2003). However, this does not mean that governments in times of public emergency threatening the life of the nation have cart blanch to disregard human rights. Instead, according to the law, derogations must be proportional to the crisis at hand, must not be introduced on a discriminatory basis, and must not contravene other rules of international law including rules of International Humanitarian Law (2003). In addition to the above limitations, there is a class of human rights set aside by these laws that are not derogable under any circumstances. These include the right to life, and the protection from torture, cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment, slavery, servitude, and retroactive criminal laws (2003). Thus, even in times of extreme peril, governments may not resort to any of the above activities against any person or group. Both International Humanitarian Law (IHL) and International Human Rights Law (IHRL) legally bind governments (and in some cases non-government groups or non-state actors). Specifically, IHL covers both state and non-state actors in armed conflicts, while IHRL binds governments. Additionally, in some cases under IHL laws, inpidual persons may be held criminally responsible for what is known as grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I, as well as for anything deemed to be war crimes (2003). Even in IHRL some inpidual criminal activities are punishable, provided that they are international crimes including genocide, crimes against humanity and activities that constitute torture (2003). These laws are enforced and prosecuted by the International Criminal Court, as well as the ad hoc International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda. Further, the states themselves are bound to implement IHL and IHRL laws and must actively prevent and punish war crimes by establishing relevant legislation, apply fundamental and judicial guarantees, implement IHRL rules, and provide legislative, administrative, judicial and other measures that may be necessary to give effect to the rights provided for in the treaties (ICRC 2003). Thus, inpidual states (governments) are required to take such actions as developing criminal laws to prohibit and punish acts against IHRL and IHL treaties. Collectively, governments agree to be bound by a supervisory system which includes the Protecting Power mechanism, the inquiry procedure and the International Fact-Finding Commission (2003). Given, then, that these rights, laws, and protections of human rights exist, the above mechanisms are expanding beyond idealistic rule-making to real enforcement. The aftermaths of the recent Balkan wars are excellent examples of this. However, clashes remain between international human rights laws and domestic law in protecting human rights. One contemporary example of this problem is the United States use of interrogation techniques that violate the Geneva Convention. Specifically, in 2002, allegations emerged concerning detainees in U.S. custody in Afghanistan or while held by United States allies. In a Washington Post article, authors allege that people held in Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan have been subjected to interrogation techniques which fit the Geneva Convention definition of torture. According to groups like Human Rights Watch, these people are guaranteed freedom from this treatment, be they captured combatants, civilians or criminal suspects (HRW, 2002). According to Human Rights Watch, these allegations are severe, in that Direct involvement or complicity in torture, as well as the failure to prevent torture by subordinates, may subject U.S. officials to prosecution under international law (2002). Further, Such acts are grave breaches, or war crimes, under the 1949 Geneva Conventions. Clearly, the prohibition against the above behavior is clear, and one would imagine that governments like the United States would have been immediately bound to stop such activities or risk prosecution. However, the reaction of the Bush administration illustrates the possible barriers and loopholes to block the very mechanisms that are expanding to prosecute and punish such abuses. Indeed, the United States reacted to this by attaching a signing statement to the McCain anti-torture legislation that relies on the presidents Commander-in-Chief power to undermine domestic legislation and treaty provisions prohibiting the torture and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment of detainees in U.S. custody (Palmer 2006). Specifically, the administration took steps to reclassify what constitutes cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment as outside the sphere of U.S. interrogation techniques. Clearly, the remedy for such actions (and the similar actions of other states) is to be found in the authority of the greater international community of treaty members, and with the agreed upon jurisdiction of the international courts. However, given the strong geo-political power of superpower nations like the United States, there remains the question of how to enforce the law against immensely powerful entities. As of today this continues to be a significant problem that undermines the future of Human Rights protections globally. One remedy, however, that may temper the reinterpretation trend begun by the Bush administration is for future leaders to recognize the folly of reinterpretation out of simple self-interest. After all, if torture can be interpreted to serve the needs of one state, it only follows that all states may follow suit, putting all in jeopardy. Until the majority of governments come to that realization, the on the ground implementation of human rights law will remain imperfect. However, for now the world must deal with the imperfection of what is, and continue to work toward what should be in a world of ideals. References Cook, Rebecca J. 1994. Womens International Human Rights Law: The Way Forward. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. HRW. Human Rights Watch. Staff. 2002. Human Rights Watch News: United States: Reports of Torture of Al-Qaeda Suspects. ICRC. International Committee of the Red Cross. Staff. 2003. International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law: Similarities and differences. [Online]. Available: http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/57JR8L/$FILE/IHL_and_IHRL.pdf? Palmer, Rebecca. 2006. Reinterpreting Torture: Presidential Signing Statements and the Circumvention of U.S. and International Law. [Online]. Available: http://www.wcl.american.edu/hrbrief/14/1palmer.pdf Perry, Michael J. 1998. The Idea of Human Rights: Four Inquiries. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, page 44-45

The Danger of Intelligence Politicization

The Danger of Intelligence Politicization National Intelligence Council (NIC) remains the America’s most important agency in charge of the country’s security. It is charged with the responsibility of enhancing the depth and accuracy of intelligence investigation and integration of domestic and foreign dimensions of the country’s intelligence.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Danger of Intelligence Politicization specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is done to ensure that the threats to United States’ national security are fully understood and probed.1 National Intelligence Council has had its fair share of successes in predicting possible security threats to the United States and its allies. However, it has also received some criticism for its failure to predict or accurately evaluate some security threats to the country.2 For instance, National Intelligence Council has faced various challenges in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the nuclear threat posed by Iran. The agency has had several intelligence failures in the two instances mentioned above, and they are highlighted below. According to Zegart in her article â€Å"Organization Theory, Intelligence, and the Cuban Missile Crisis†, US National Intelligence Council failed to fully foresee the intentions of the Soviet leader (Khrushchev), in placing nuclear weapons in Cuba during the Cuban Missile Crisis3. The intelligence officers were only worried about political fallout in Cuba and its effects in other Latin American countries rather than cared about a military threat the country could have had. The National Intelligence Estimates (NIE) provided indicated that the Soviet leader had been unwilling to set up a military base in Cuba in almost two decades, and there was no short or midterm anticipation of such an activity by Khrushchev in Cuba. The estimates also strongly indicated that the Soviet bloc would not have wished to engage its military forc es in case Cuba had been attacked by the United States. However, it was realized that there were many Soviet troops who had arrived in the country and seemed to be ready to defend it from foreign attacks. This was another failure by US National Intelligence Council in the Cuban Missile Crisis. The NIC also insisted on the issue that installation of nuclear weapons in Cuba by the Soviet Union would go against the Soviet policies.Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Another failure by National Intelligence Council was the inability to accurately estimate the number of Soviet military personnel in Cuba during the period preceding the crisis. In the recent times, US National Intelligence Council has come under scrutiny once again because of its failures in accurately reading the Iranian nuclear situation.4 National Intelligence Council used strong words to suggest that Iran had dropped its ambitions to build nuclear weapons in 2003, and this created a false sense of security. It indicated that Tehran lacked the prerequisite technical knowhow to build nuclear weapons and had consequently opted to halt its nuclear program.5 However, this turned out to be the exact opposite of the situation on the ground as Iran continued to vigorously pursue its nuclear weapons ambitions. In reality, the country divided its nuclear program into three phases which included fissile material production, missile development and building of warheads. In his article titled, â€Å"Misreading the Iran Report: Why Spying and Policymaking Don’t Mix†, Kissinger (para, 3) notes that the country indeed increased the pace of fissile material production and showed impressive technological capabilities in its missile development since its missiles had increased ranges6. The payload of its new missile has also risen.7 Recent information from National Intelligence Coun cil indicated that the country had the capacity to produce adequate enriched uranium for use in nuclear weapons and the number of warheads produced would increase between 2010 and 2015. This contradicts the initial statement by National Intelligence Council on Iran’s nuclear program. Bolton (para, 6) argues in his article â€Å"The Flaws In the Iran Report† that the National Intelligence Estimates were self-contradicting and not sufficiently supported by implying that Tehran was likely to give in to diplomatic persuasion and international community pressure8. The Director of National Intelligence (para 6) stated in his report that Iran had stopped its nuclear program due to international pressure even though it is was noted that the country alongside North Korea were two of the most difficult countries to deal with diplomatically, particularly on the issue of nuclear weapons.9Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Danger of Intelligence Politici zation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite these failures by National Intelligence Council to precisely read and interpret intelligence reports, it can be argued that the NIC has shown impressive successes in acquisition of vital security information. National Intelligence Council has been successful in obtaining information, which has been vital in preventing crisis from intensifying and resulting into wars. For instance, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, the photo obtained by the NIC from aerial reconnaissance proved to be very useful in actual discovery of Soviet missiles and military personnel in Cuba before the weapons became operational. This proved a major turning point in the standoff and it gave the United States a piece of evidence which it could have used against the Soviet government and ultimately pressurized it to rescind its deal with Cuba.10 From the challenges National Intelligence Council experienced in dealing with the Cuban Missile Crisis, it became apparent that there was a need to integrate activities of its various intelligence groups since some of the security threats posed to the country appeared to be coordinated from different fronts. The success of the photographic evidence obtained from the aerial reconnaissance during the Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in appreciation of the capabilities of aerial reconnaissance and influenced the decision to fully incorporate satellite photography in monitoring of disarmament agreements. This was later used to monitor progress in the Iranian missile program.11 The effort made by the government to reduce on budgetary expenditures and prioritize its services to the public is a critical provision not only to the military but also to other developmental sectors as well. Nonetheless, intelligence and security sectors have fundamental/conventional requirements and priorities that cannot be compromised at any cost. From experience, it is evident that the Amer ica’s military bases in Cuba and Iran had advantageous priorities that could only be met by allocating to them enough budgets and enhancing intelligence provisions as well as enough contingency funds. This move was effective but it might also pose critical impacts on the security of the nation.12Advertising Looking for essay on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More National Intelligence Council has also become more apt in evaluating intelligence information and minimized inaccurate analysis and conclusions on security threats after the Cuban crisis. The NIC has also been successful in stifling Iran’s nuclear program even though it has not been fully stopped. Due to the impact of the NIC’s activities, Iran temporarily halted its nuclear program and has been forced to conduct its program in a more restricted manner. Some could argue that this is a more dangerous situation since it becomes impossible to fully comprehend the extent of the program’s progress. However, it is important to realize that by limiting Iran’s ability to brazenly continue with its nuclear program, National Intelligence Council has ensured that the rate of production of the nuclear weapons was effectively reduced and the ability of the country to seek external assistance to its program was also limited.13 The NIC is vital in formulation of the pol icies and has been greatly applied in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Iran nuclear program. Prior to receiving concrete intelligence, the United States was unable to have a clear understanding of the magnitude of the Soviet’s activities in Cuba.14 This prevented decisive action being taken against the Soviet Union or Cuba. Based on intelligence obtained, the United States government was able to convince the Soviet Union to halt its activities in Cuba, and it even resulted in Khrushchev being overthrown in his country. Discussing how deficiencies in US intelligence capabilities impacted on the crisis Evidently, deficiencies in US intelligence capabilities impacted on the crisis in diverse ways. The personal skills and competencies that allowed US militants to manage their emotions, perceptions, and feelings and those of other individuals were really compromised during the entire crisis.15 The situation requires one to have the capability of coping up with other people, situat ions, and any environment of existence. The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Iranian Nuclear Threat led to a number of negative effects. The American economy was greatly affected considering that they spent a lot of money in buying the equipments which were used to fight the Taliban. The war resulted in the death of many US soldiers as well as Cuban and Iranian people. For instance, statistics indicate that approximately 2,000 American soldiers and 10,000 affected country’s soldiers died. The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Iranian Nuclear Threat also present certain realities of loses to both Cuban and Iranian citizens and the United States. To begin with, war against the terrorists led to massive damages to Afghanistan infrastructure. To retaliate against the attacks by US soldiers, the insurgents targeted public utilities where they destroyed properties and infrastructure. In addition, intelligence failures led to death of many people at the range of 224,000 to 258,000 who were s oldiers, terrorists as well as innocent citizens. Moreover, intelligence failure led to great waste of money by both the American government and the insurgents. For instance, the current statistics unveil that American government spent a total of at least $3.7 trillion on the operation. This value would be likely to rise to the excess of $4.4 trillion if the war continued as planned by the US government. Many American soldiers also died in the battlefield with some of those who survived the aftermath succumbing to post traumatic disorder.16 In the context of US intelligence capabilities, the war in Cuba and Iran had deep-rooted historical causes and aftermaths that were hard to assume or ignore when analyzing them. In other contexts, US National Intelligence Council believed that Taliban allowed terrorist groups like the forbidden al-Qaeda to establish training camps within Afghanistan. This situation coupled with the destructive facts of 9/11 and believable intelligence that the pe rpetrators were in hideouts in Afghanistan made US government plan military attack in the region. Upon completion of the plans, the US military began official â€Å"Operation Enduring Freedom† in Afghanistan in October 2001. In November 2001, US together with friendly armies managed to destroy militant camps as well as arrest some members of the insurgent groups and terminate the Taliban rule. This marked the actual beginning of the war in Afghanistan and projected specifically against the Islamist militias. This also indicates how the deficiencies in US intelligence capabilities impacted on the crisis.17 As much as the motive behind the war in Cuba and Iran related to the desire to restore freedom in the countries, American interest in the oil and minerals in the foreign land confirmed by its continued stay in the countries compromised its intelligence. Despite the criticisms directed against the American government from both within and outside the USA for its continued stay in Iran even after establishment of a democratic government, American government seemed reluctant to recall its soldiers due to poor intelligence issues.18 One of the reasons earmarking the stand by US government relates to the fact that Taliban and other supporting militant groups were fighting to resume leadership over Afghanistan and Iran. Return of Taliban is likely to destabilize and compromise the freedom and democracy currently enjoyed by Afghanistan citizens. This also explains how the deficiencies in US intelligence capabilities impacted on the crisis.19 This was another failure by the NIC in the Cuban Missile Crisis. As mentioned earlier, National Intelligence Council also insisted on the issue that installation of nuclear weapons in Cuba by the Soviet Union would have gone against the Soviet policies. Another failure by the Council was the inability to accurately estimate the number of Soviet military personnel in Cuba during the period preceding the crisis. In recent ti mes, National Intelligence Council has come under scrutiny for its failures in accurately estimating the Iranian nuclear situation. In the context of military capabilities, it is agreeable that there exist serious impacts of the government move to cut down on the budgets of the military as stated before. Nonetheless, this can only be proved in the context of its weightiness upon investigation, compilation of the findings, analysis, and other critical research provisions.20 For the intelligence unit to provide a wide range of combat ability, their intelligence capabilities and budget allocation should be optimal. Since there are also emergency cases related to security, such intelligence issues should cater for any eventuality regarding security. Precisely, the exact intelligence impacts should cut on the security of military bases through appropriate methodology and government support. The impacts of how deficiencies in US intelligence capabilities impacted on the crisis related to the ability to adjust to the environment where one exists and ability to cope up with other people within the same environment. In the context of intelligence deficiency, this phenomenon is mostly evident in the war places where soldiers tend to face different opinions, cultures, races, ages, and other provisions that make them different. Intelligence confers the aspects of self awareness as indicated previously. Anybody with viable personality must possess the aspects of self awareness following its merits and contribution to viable personality within one’s self. Evidently, institutions with intelligence capabilities do not allow their emotions to rule their destiny and how they relate to the other people. They are able to trust only themselves in every situation since they cannot let themselves go off the hook. Such aspects have proved quite considerable, applicable, and embraceable by masses especially in the USA’s context. Intelligence capabilities relates to the a spects of being honest with one’s self, which is a fact conferred by emotional intelligence. It is from this concept that numerous individuals find themselves quite useful within an organization.21 It is important to note that National Intelligence has had its fair share of successes in predicting possible security threats to United States and its allies. Nonetheless, it has also received some criticism for its failure to predict or accurately evaluate some security threats to the country. For instance, National Intelligence Council has faced various challenges in the Cuban Missile Crisis and the nuclear threat posed by Iran. Moreover, the intervention of American soldiers that triggered the Afghanistan war helped in restoring a democratic government that is working to ensure useful and beneficial exploration of the country’s natural resources.22 Through intelligence, it is without doubt that even if the USA benefits from the oil and other minerals, Afghanistan citizen s also realize positive economic, social and political growth due to US support and investments. In addition, the war in Afghanistan that led to manhunt of al-Qaeda and other Islamist militias and eventual killing of personalities like Osama Bin Laden marks important mileage in antiterrorist wars. It is also important to note that US NIC has become more inapt in evaluating intelligence information and minimized inaccurate analysis and conclusions on security threats.23 It has also been unsuccessful in stifling Iran and Korean’s nuclear program failing to fully stop it. Due to the impact of the National Intelligence’s activities, Iran temporarily halted its nuclear program and has now been forced to conduct its program in a more restricted manner. This equally indicated how the deficiencies in US intelligence capabilities impacted on the crisis. Bibliography Adelberg, Michael S. The American Revolution in Monmouth County: The Theatre of Spoil and Destruction. Charleston , SC: History Press, 2010. Betts, Richard K. Enemies of Intelligence: Knowledge and Power in American National Security. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2007. Bolton, John. â€Å"The Flaws In the Iran Report†. Washington Post, December 2007. Davis, Jack. â€Å"Sherman Kents Final Thoughts On Analyst-Policymaker Relations: The Sherman Kent Center for Intelligence Analysis.† Occasional Papers 2, no. 3 (2003): page nr. Accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/kent-center-occasional-papers/vol2no3.htm. Davis, Jack. â€Å"The Challenge of Managing Uncertainty.† Central Intelligence Agency. April 14, 2007. Accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/96unclass/davis.htm. Director of National Intelligence. â€Å"Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities.† nytimes.com. December 7, 2007. Accessed from http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/international/20071203_release.pdf. George, Roger. Analyzing Intelligence Origins, Obstacles, and Innovations. Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2008. Kissinger, Henry. â€Å"Misreading the Iran Report: Why Spying and Policymaking Don’t Mix†. Washington Post, December 2007. Pillar, Paul R. Intelligence and U.S. Foreign Policy Iraq, 9/11, and Misguided Reform. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011. Rovner, Joshua. Fixing the Facts: National Security and the Politics of Intelligence. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011. Zegart, Amy B. â€Å"Organization Theory, Intelligence, and the Cuban Missile Crisis.† Masters thesis, UCLA School of Public Affairs, 2010. Accessed from http://iis-db.stanford.edu/evnts/6341/Zegart_Research_Seminar_-_Cuban_missile_crisis_paper_Sept._21,_2010.pdf. Footnotes 1 Director of National Intelligence, â€Å"Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities,† nytimes.com, December 7, 2007, accessed from http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/international/20071203_release.pd f. 2 Amy B. Zegart, â€Å"Organization Theory, Intelligence, and the Cuban Missile Crisis† (masters thesis, UCLA School of Public Affairs, 2010), 1-42, accessed from http://iis-db.stanford.edu/evnts/6341/Zegart_Research_Seminar_-_Cuban_missile_crisis_paper_Sept._21,_2010.pdf. 3 Ibid. 4 Henry A. Kissinger, â€Å"Misreading the Iran Report,† Washington Post, December 13, 2007 5 Paul R. Pillar. Intelligence and U.S. Foreign Policy Iraq, 9/11, and Misguided Reform. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011). 6 Henry A. Kissinger, â€Å"Misreading the Iran Report,† Washington Post, December 13, 2007 7 Rovner, Joshua. Fixing the Facts: National Security and the Politics of Intelligence. ( Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011). 8 John Bolton. â€Å"The Flaws In the Iran Report†. Washington Post, December 2007. 9 Amy B. Zegart, â€Å"Organization Theory, Intelligence, and the Cuban Missile Crisis† (masters thesis, UCLA School of Public Affairs, 2010), 1 -42, accessed from http://iis-db.stanford.edu/evnts/6341/Zegart_Research_Seminar_-_Cuban_missile_crisis_paper_Sept._21,_2010.pdf 10 Jack Davis, â€Å"Paul Wolfowitz on Intelligence Policy-Relations: The Challenge of Managing Uncertainty,† Central Intelligence Agency, April 14, 2007, accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/96unclass/davis.htm. 11 Jack Davis, â€Å"Sherman Kents Final Thoughts On Analyst-Policymaker Relations: The Sherman Kent Center for Intelligence Analysis†,Occasional Papers 2, no. 3 (2003): page nr., accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/kent-center-occasional-papers/vol2no3.htm. 12 Betts, Richard K. Enemies of Intelligence: Knowledge and Power in American National Security ( New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2007), 34. 13 Jack Davis, â€Å"Paul Wolfowitz on Intelligence Policy-Relations: The Challenge of Managing Uncertainty,† Central Intelligence Agency, April 14, 2007, accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/96unclass/davis.htm. 14 Director of National Intelligence, â€Å"Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities,† nytimes.com, December 7, 2007, accessed from http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/international/20071203_release.pdf 15 Bolton, John. The Flaws In the Iran Report. Washington Post, December 6, 2007. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/05/AR2007120502234.html?hpid=opinionsbox1 16Jack Davis, â€Å"Sherman Kents Final Thoughts On Analyst-Policymaker Relations: The Sherman Kent Center for Intelligence Analysis†,Occasional Papers 2, no. 3 (2003): page nr., accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/kent-center-occasional-papers/vol2no3.htm. 17Jack Davis, â€Å"Sherman Kents Final Thoughts On Analyst-Policymaker Relations: The Sherman Kent Center for Intelligence Analysis†,Occasional Papers 2, no. 3 (2003): page nr., access ed from https://www.cia.gov/library/kent-center-occasional-papers/vol2no3.htm. 18 Roger George. Analyzing Intelligence Origins, Obstacles, and Innovations. (Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2008). 19 Bolton, John. The Flaws In the Iran Report. Washington Post, December 6, 2007. washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/12/05/AR2007120502234.html?hpid=opinionsbox1 20 Adelberg, Michael. The American Revolution in Monmouth County: The Theatre of Spoil and Destruction (Charleston, SC: History Press, 2010), 21. 21 Jack Davis, â€Å"Paul Wolfowitz on Intelligence Policy-Relations: The Challenge of Managing Uncertainty,† Central Intelligence Agency, April 14, 2007, accessed from https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/96unclass/davis.htm. 22 Amy B. Zegart, â€Å"Organization Theory, Intelligence, and the Cuban Missile Crisis† (masters thesis, UCLA School of Public Affairs, 2010), 1-42, accessed from ht tp://iis-db.stanford.edu/evnts/6341/Zegart_Research_Seminar_-_Cuban_missile_crisis_paper_Sept._21,_2010.pdf 23 Director of National Intelligence, â€Å"Iran: Nuclear Intentions and Capabilities,† nytimes.com, December 7, 2007, accessed from http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/international/20071203_release.pdf

Foreign policies of the European Union regarding military operations Essay

Foreign policies of the European Union regarding military operations - Essay Example prolonging to engage in WTO negotiations to attain an inspirational formula for dismantling of tariff structures, which are footed on its suggestion of a simple Swiss formula together with flexibilities that would fit into applied tariff. Further, EU will also examine further trade liberalisation mainly through sectoral approaches, which include goods of specific interest to developing nations and for chief EU precedence sectors, especially footwear, clothing and textiles, leather thereby directing to an intersection of market access norms among WTO members around the minimum potential stages of protection and dealing efficiently with non-tariff barriers. The truth is that EU converses with a â€Å"single voice† in trade which has facilitated it to impact the distributional results of international trade dialogues and to outline the global political economy. EU has made substantial efforts in liberalising the sway on trading of services on an international basis and has vigorously added to the development of global norms within the structure of WTO intended to stop unilateralism. As per Featherstone and Ginsberg, (1996) one of the most pivotal provinces that had been addressed by Europe’s common foreign policy is the traditional mutual relations by European member states with the USA which has added a European-US component connoting that relations with the US has mostly acknowledged by this transformation on the European side. Moreover, the European-US joint policies have more thoroughly synchronised and there have been many instances of mutual â€Å"backing.† (Tonra & Christiansen 2004:11). Further the association of EU with the Soviet Union and erstwhile Eastern Europe has been systematically reassessed and redesigned. Though the policies involving Eastern and Central Europe and the Soviet Union which were initiated in 1980s were conflicting during the initial years but after the Copenhagen Summit in June 1993, they were changed into a standpoint on EU’s